Medicines and drugs Essay Example for Free

Medicines and drugs Essay A drug or medicine is a chemical that alters incoming sensory sensations, mood or emotions, or physiological state. Painkillers, hallucinogens and alcohols are examples of drugs and medicines that alter incoming sensory sensations. Prozac and alcohol alter mood or emotions Steroids, cigarettes and heart medicines alter physiological state, including consciousness, activity level or coordination. Drugs such as antiseptics, antibiotics and antivirals are infection fighters; hormones and vitamins affect body chemistry or metabolism; stimulants, depressants, analgesics and anesthetics affect the central nervous system and the brain. It is also important to understand that the human body has great natural healing processes; some drugs just increase the rate of natural healing. Also, there could be a placebo effect, it is when a pharmacologically inert substance that make seems to help because the person taking the substance was told that it would work. Placebo effect is examined by giving sugar pills to one group of tests patients, and real drugs to another group (when they are not aware of which they receive). B.1.2: Outline the stages involved in research, development and testing of new pharmaceutical products. This takes a very long time and costs a fortune, and is often controlled by the government. Before drugs are tested on humans, they must be testing on various animals (start with small animals and then go to bigger ones). The range of effective doses, the doses in which side-effects arise and the lethal doses have to be determined. There are 3 phases then; clinical trial; clinical evaluation (more in depth analysis); human studies with more evaluation, Very few drugs make it to the market, and the development would have cost a lot. Sometimes, things can still go wrong, like Thalidomide. It was given to pregnant women to treat morning sickness, but it cause deformities in babies! Now it is still used, but to treat skin sores. B.1.3. Describe the different methods of administering drugs * Oral: Very convenient. However, it might not be reliable as the rate of absorption depends on drug concentration, stomach content and pH value. As most is absorbed in the small intestines, so the drug must survive the gastric acid. Therefore it often lays in time release capsules. * Rectal: Good when drug cannot be taken orally due to vomiting or because the drug is pH sensitive. * Inhalation: Rapid, as there are loads of blood vessels in the lungs, and therefore a drug would have a reliable effect. Good for general anaesthesia, and asthma medicine. * Parental o Just below the skin; slower than for intravenous. Used often for dental injections o Into muscles; for large doses, or when immediate response is not needed (vaccines etc). o Intravenous; almost instantaneous, but cannot be undone when injected! Fatty lipids may bind some kinds of drugs, so the drugs wont leave the body so fast The half life of a drug is the time for half the dose in the body to be eliminated. B.1.4. Discuss the terms lethal dosage (LD50), tolerance and side effects. LD50 is the lethal dose for 50% of the population; and it varies a lot from drug to drug. When one is tolerant, then one has to take a larger dose in order to feel the wanted effects. Some people after often use of a drug becomes dependant on it; physically (they must have it to be able to function physically) or psychologically (they must have it to feel right). Tolerance doesnt necessarily mean that one gets used to the harmful effects. Sometimes it is hard to know the difference between main effect and side effect. A drug has many effects, and some patients benefit from a few of those effects; then those are the main effects, and all the other are side effects. Someone else, with another disease may benefit from other effects, and then those become the main effects. There are always harmful effects too. The risk : benefit ratio should also be considered. B.2.1. State and explain how excess acidity in the stomach can be reduced by the use of different bases. Bases, most often metal oxides, hydroxides, carbonates or hydrogen carbonates are used as antacids. These react with acid in the stomach to adjust the pH value. The purpose of gastric acid is to kill off bacteria, and help in digestion. However, over-eating or stress stimulates more production of acid, causing discomfort. The active ingredients tend to be; this react only with HCl: Magnesium Oxide: Magnesium Hydroxide: Aluminium Hydroxide: Calcium Carbonate: Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate: Magnesium Trisilicate: Some of the products; Carbon dioxide is a gas. So a foaming agent has to be added to prohibit excessive belching. Also alginates are used, to prevent acid reflux. If too much antacid is used, the stomach becomes too basic, and that hurts too; then more antacid might be wrongly taken. This leads to alkalosis. B.3.2. Describe the use of derivatives of salicylic acid as mild analgesics and compare the advantages and disadvantages of using aspirin and paracetamol (acetaminophen) Salicylic acid is used as an anti-pyretic (fever reducer) and mild analgesic (painkiller), but it is a strong acid and hurts the stomach and mouth; so variations of salicylic acid was used. One is Acetyl Salicylic Acid (ASA) or Aspirin, which has the benefits of salicylic acid and does not irritate so much due to the acetyl group. When ASA reacts with water, it becomes salicylic acid, and the by-product of ethanoic acid. GOOD: It is good for killing minor pain, reducing fever, acting as an anti-inflammatory agent and prevents abnormal blood clot. BAD: Upsets stomach and bleeding; allergy; accidental poisoning in infants and Reyes syndrome. Acetaminophen is also an anti-pyretic and analgesic. However it does not upset the stomach and is safe. However, overdose can still occur and lead to liver and brain damage. And it is not anti-inflammatory. Ibuprofen is like aspirin and cause fewer stomach problems. It is anti-inflammatory and is very safe. B.3.3. Compare the structures of morphine, codeine and the semi-synthetic opiate heroin. These are strong analgesics and are often called opiates, narcotics or narcotic analgesics. The major pain relieving substance originates from the opium poppy plant is sleep inducing and pain relieving. All three share the same skeleton. Remember the group C2H3O2 is called an acetyl group. B.3.4. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using morphine and its derivatives as strong analgesics. These affects: The Central Nervous System, the Eye and the Gastrointestinal tract (the digestive system) They are used as: Strong analgesics (severe pain from injury and chronic diseases); treatment of diarrhoea, relieve coughing. However they are very addictive and are rather replaced with something else. They also produce mood changes, drowsiness and mental clouding. Tolerance can arise by adaptation of the liver and neurons in the brain. Some people cant function without the drug, feeling restlessness, sweating, fever, chills, vomiting, aches etc due to abstinence of the drug. There is often severe psychological dependence too (one might feel extremely depressed).à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ Short term effects: Sedation, stupor, pain relief, euphoria, reduced tension, worry, couching reflex. One might die of overdose. Long term effects: Loss of appetite, sterility, withdrawal illness, crime, diversion of energy. B.4.1. Describe the effects of depressants Tranquilizers, sedatives and hypnotics, which calm and relax; they slow down heart rate and breathing. Tranquilizers include alcohol, Valium and Librium and are weaker than the others. These relieve anxiety and tension. Sedatives: Barbituates that soothe distress without producing much sleep in small doses. Hypnotics: Like chloral hydrate. These induce sleep. Too much can lead to coma or teach. B.4.2. Discuss the social and physiological effects of the use and abuse of ethanol. Social effects: Major costs from alcohol are from sickness and death, as in hospital treatments and lost efficiency. Property crimes and crimes against people; drinking while driving. Physiological effects: Harmful to relationships, and may physically or emotionally harm others. One may lose control and develop dependence and tolerance. It increases blood pressure when drinking and nausea, sweating and anxiety as withdrawal of use. Short-term effects: CNS depressant reduces tension. It triggers Euphoria, Talkativeness, Dilation of blood vessels, Violent behaviours, Inertia, Coma, Death. Long term effects: Cirrhosis, liver cancer, coronary heart disease, high blood pressure, strokes, gastritis, low birth mass etc. Alcohol can be used for antiseptics such as mouthwashes. B.4.3. Describe and explain the techniques used for the detection of ethanol in the breath of in the blood or urine. Ethanol passes from the stomach into the blood and therefore it passes into the lungs and ethanol vapour is formed. The breathalyser test might involve a redox equation with potassium dichromate: as oxidizing agent. Color change: Red-Orange to Green The gas liquid chromatography works as follows: Small samples of gases and volatile liquids such ethanol are separated. These are pushed through a column using an unimportant gas, such as Nitrogen gas and different gases take different time to come to the detector, where concentration of gases are measured. Intoxilyzer, Infra-red spectroscopy: Infra-red energy make molecules vibrate. Different types of bonds absorb and vibrate at different infer-red frequencies. By measuring how much energy is not absorbed by the molecules, one can find the number of certain bonds in the molecules. B.4.4. Describe the synergistic effects of ethanol with other drugs. Alcohol is easily absorbed in the stomach, so drugs that can be dissolved in alcohol will be absorbed much quicker, and the dosage will seem higher as in normal conditions the liver removes a part of the drug. So performance of the drug is enhanced and may lead to devastating effects such as death, especially if alcohol is combined with barbituates. Alcohol with aspirin increases the risk of stomach bleeding. B.4.5 . List other commonly used depressants and describe their structures. Valium (diazepam) is a tranquilizer, Mogadon (Nitrazepam) is a hypnotic drug (used to control seizures and infantile spasms), Prozac (hydrochloride) is an anti-depressant drug used to treat mental depression. Diazepam and Nitrazepam have similar carbon skeletons meanwhile Prozac is different. B.5.1. List the physiological effects of stimulants. Stimulants are chemicals that stimulate the brain and the central nervous system. It is the opposite of a depressant. These increase alertness. Examples are amphetamine, nicotine and caffeine. B.5.2. Compare amphetamines and adrenaline They both derive from the phenylethylamine structure, and therefore look similar. Furthermore, amphetamines mimic the effects of adrenaline (they are sympathomimetic drugs), as they constrict arteries and thus increases sweat production. They increase heart rate, blood pressure, respiration and insomnia. Medical uses: Treat mild depression, narcolepsy and asthma. They use up the bodys reserve energy and can lead to a collapse. B.5.3 Discuss the short- and long-term effects of nicotine consumption. Tobacco is a source of nicotine which is a mild stimulant with a short lived effect. The response is followed by depression and thereby makes one pushed to use it more often. Short-term: Increase in heart-rate and blood pressure. It constricts blood vessels and therefore strains the heart. Nicotine also reduces urine output. Long term effects of nicotine: It stresses hard and may lead to heart diseases and blood clot; May lead to increase of fatty acids in the blood. Smoking leads to more carbon monoxide in the blood making the blood less able to carry blood. It also increases the gastric acid production and may lead to ulcer. Smoking causes: Cancer in lungs and mouth; heart and blood vessel disease; breathing difficulties and chronic bronchitis; air pollution; fires; bad teeth; insomnia. B.5.4. Describe the effects of caffeine and compare its structure with that of nicotine. Caffeine stimulates the respiratory system (more energy is available from respiration), so heart and brain gets more energy. So one becomes more alert, motivated and well-being. In small amounts in is rather harmless, but too much causes insomnia. One gets more urine as well. Caffeine leads to some tolerance but no physical addiction. It can be given to babies to help their breathing. It also constricts blood vessels and therefore helps against migraines. Both caffeine and nicotine contain a tertiary amine group. Caffeine has more of those though. B.6.1. Describe the historical development of penicillins. In 1928, Fleming accidentally saw that some types of fungi killed off a certain bacterium and started to try to isolate the fungi, but it was too hard to purify it. In 1940, Floray and Chain continued with penicillin testing and development, and in 1943 it was available clinically. The first penicillin was Penicillin G. However it was deactivated by stomach acid so it had to be injected. Acid resistance penicillins such as penicillin V was developed by modifying the side chains of the basic penicillin structure. Some bacteria could deactivate penicillin G by synthesising an enzyme, therefore one had to make other synthetic penicillins. 6-APA penicillin is inert, but an extra amino group H2N would activate it. B.6.2. Compare broad spectrum and narrow spectrum antibiotics A broad spectrum antibiotics is effective against a wide variety of bacteria. Examples are tetracyclines. Narrow ones are effective only against certain types of bacteria; most penicillins are narrow spectrum antibiotics. One often has to determine the bacterium before getting antibiotics, because a broad-spectrum one can kill beneficial bacteria and give discomfort. B.6.3. Explain how penicillins work and discuss the effects of modifying the side chain. The cell walls of some bacteria are composed of polysaccharides, and these layers are supported by cross-links. However, penicillins interfere with the formation of these links and therefore weaken the structure. The bacteria can easily burst. Animals cells dont have these cell walls and are therefore not affected. It is important to modify the side chain to work against bacteria have evolved and are able to break down certain types of penicillin. Side chains are also added to make the penicillin work (as for the 6-APA) and to survive the gastric acid (Penicillin G) B.6.4. Discuss and explain the effect over prescription of penicillins has, and the use of penicillins in animal feedstock Repeated use may lead to allergic reactions. They can also wipe out harmless and beneficial bacteria in the food canal, and harmful bacteria might eventually replace these. Bacteria can become resistant against certain antibiotics and then pass on their immunity. In feedstock: They are used to kill dangerous pathogens which may otherwise endanger humans and animals. They are also used to increase productivity. However, this increases the chances that bacteria might become resistant. B.7.1. State how viruses differ from bacteria Bacteria are relatively large single cell microorganism with DNA strands. Viruses are noncellular and are much smaller and are not living. They can only reproduce within a host cell. B.7.2. Describe the different ways in which antiviral drugs work * Block the transfer of genetic information * Control by inoculation, vaccines. * Block the enzyme activity in a host cell, so that the virus cant use it to replicate. B.7.3. Discuss the difficulties associated with solving the AIDS problem HIV molecules bind to proteins on T-type of white blood cells and hinder them from fighting infections by inactivating them. HIV virus is good at mutating and together with their similarities with human cells, it is very heard to treat with antiviral drugs and vaccines. B.8.1. Describe the importance of geometrical isomerism in drug action. Stereoisomers are isomers with the same molecular formula and the same structural formula, but different arrangement of atoms in space. Geoemetric isomers have different physical properties such as polarity, boiling point, and solubility etc. They may also undergo different t chemical reactions although their functional groups are identical. For example cisplatin is en effective anti-cancer drug (as it may enter the nucleus of a cancerous cell), but the trans-isomers is inactive in such purposes. B.8.2. Discuss the importance of chirality in drug action. Optical isomers differ from geometric isomers in two ways: * Optical isomers are chiral (asymmetric) * Optical isomers are non-superimposable mirror images of each other One optical isomer rotates the plane polarized light one direction, meanwhile its other isomer rotates it the other way. An equi-molar mixture of two enantiomers means a 50-50 ration and will not totate the plane of polarised light at all; this is a racemic mixture. Penicillin V is active, but its enantiomer is inactive. One enantiomer of Thalidomide could be used to treat morning sickness in pregnant women and was marketed as a racemix mixture, but its other enantiomer gave foetal deformities. B.8.3. Describe the use of chiral auxiliaries to form the desired enantiomer. It is very heard to separate racemic mixtures into separate enantiomers, as they have identical chemical properties in relation to non-chiral reagents. Instead, scientists use stereospecific synthesis to produce only one kind of enantiomer. Chiral auxiliaries are used to convert non-chiral molecules into a desired enantiomer by attching itself chemically to the non-chiral molecule so that only one type of enantiomer can be formed. After the procedure the auxiliary can be recycled. This is used when synthesising Taxol which isa drug effective against breast cancer. B.8.4. Explain the use of combinatorial chemistry to synthesise new drugs. This is when one creates lots of molecules and test them quickly for biological properties; one starts with a set of basic chemicals which are then combined in all possible combinations, and this allows a fast production of many different molecules, increasing the chance of finding better drugs. A library is a collection of compounds that are screened to determine their usefulness as a drug, using parallel synthesis (identical processes with many different molecules at the same time). B.9.1. Compare local and general anaesthetics in terms of their modes of action Local anaesthetics block the pain in specific areas when they are injected under the skin or used as a crà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½me. Examples are cocaine, procaine, benzococaine, lidocaine etc. These block local nerve transmissions and decrease blood supply to that area. Procaine and lidocaine do not affect the brain, meanwhile cocaine does. General anaesthetics affect the brain and produce unconsciousness. But it is easy to reverse the unconsciousness. Examples are nitrous oxide, diethyl ether, chloroform, cyclopropane and halothane. B.9.2. Compare the structures and effects of cocaine, procaine and lidocaine. All three have the benzene ring and the tertiary amine. Cocaine also stimulates the central nervous system. It constricts blood vessels which leads to high blood pressure, and cant be safely used. Although it doesnt produce withdrawal symptoms and tolerance, it produces a strong psychological addiction. An overdose suppresses heart and respiration. Cocaine has a very short half life as it is metabolized by the liver fast, and is poorly absorbed when taken orally. Procaine gives prolonged relief from pain which is good for surgery and dental procedures. It is non-toxic and non-irritant. Lidocaine is used topically to produce numbness. It is more potent that procaine, but may cause swelling and itching. B.9.3. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of nitrous oxide, ethoxyethane, trichloromethane, cyclopropane and halothane. Nitrous oxide is not very potent, and makes one feel good Trichloromethane is nonflammabe, but leads to liver damages. Narrow safety margin Ethoxyethane alleviates the pain in surgery well, but it is very flammable and nonstable. Cyclopropane is a very potent anaesthetics, however it forms explosive mixtures with air and is very flammable. It also causes vomiting and nausea. Halothane is widely used as it is not flammable and one may recover fast from it. It doesnt irritate the respiratory tract. However, it takes time to become unconscious. It is potentially harmful to the ozone layer as it produces chlorine and bromine free radicals. B.9.4. Calculate the partial pressures of component gases in an anaesthetic mixture The partial pressure ratios of the total pressure equal the molar ratios of different gas molecules. It is important to have enough oxygen in the anaesthetic mixture so that the patient can live. At least 20% oxygen is needed B.10.1 Describe the effects of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), mescaline, psilocybin and tetrahydrocannabinol. Psychadelic drugs like these alter the mind and produces a change in thought, perception or mood and induce vivid fantasies. Colors seem more brilliant for the user. There are the effects of the mentioned mind altering drugs: LSD: This is a powerful hallucinogen that strongly magnifies perception and may destroy the sense of judgment. No physical addiction, and not very strong psychological dependence. Mescaline: Color hallucinations which last 12 hours. Psilocybin: Similar to LSD, especially at high doses, but at low doses produces relaxation. Shortlasting; 4 hours THC: Milder drug similar to alcohol. At larger doses, changes in perception occurs sees bright colors and gets sharper hearing. May get extreme anxiety, depression, uneasiness, panic attacks etc. There is no tolerance, but could lead to psychological dependence. B.10.2 Discuss the structural similarities and differences between LSD, mescaline and psilocybin. LSD and psilocybin both have the Indole ring (Heterocyclic amine compound where the nitrogen atom is part of a ring). However, mescaline includes the benzene ring but not the indole ring; it does have a primary amine. Serotonin also has the indole ring. B.10.3 Discuss the arguments for and against the legalization of cannabis. Cannabis offers relief from symptoms from AIDS, cancer and glaucoma. Marijuana may increase the appetite, and relieves nausea. Cannabis helps terminally ill patients to relieve tension and anxiety. Marijuana relieves pressure inside the eyeball for glaucoma patients. However there are many bad sides to it too. Smoking marijuana may lead to lung problems and may suppress the immune system. It might lead to decreased fertility for men and cause brain damage and birth defects. Users may also start using harder drugs too. Users of prohibited drugs need to obtain it from criminal sources and may therefore be forced into crime to support their habit. It damages the society a lot.

Many Words Can Be Used To Describe Martin Luther Religion Essay

Many Words Can Be Used To Describe Martin Luther Religion Essay Many words can be used to describe Martin Luther. As a reformer in the fifteen hundreds he was confident, bold, and controversial. It seems odd that the formation of his faith took place in one of the most pious endeavors one can undertake, the life of a monk. The man who passionately spoke against the pope, the Turks, and the Jews got his beginnings in the most humble of lifestyles. In the year 1505, Martin was walking back to Erfurt from a trip to Mansfeld in the middle of a storm. A lightning bolt struck him and he cried to St. Anne for help exclaiming I will become a monk.  [1]  this vow led to drastic changes in Luthers life. Luthers father, Hans, was very proud of his sons masters degree and was anticipating great things from his son1, and Martins vow to join the monastic life upset his father. Despite his fathers urgings, Luther took his vow seriously (believing it to be the will of God) and became a monk. Martin Luther entered the Augustinian Order in the Black Cloister of Erfurt. The life of a monk in the middle ages was not an easy one. The monks took many vows, the three key vows being the vows of obedience, poverty, and chastity.  [2]  The vow of chastity refers to sexual purity and abstinence. The vow of poverty led monks to dispose of all personal property and live simple lives. The vow of obedience bound monks to their superiors in the order and the church. The life of the monk involved an intense routine of worship services, prayers, confessions, and other religious acts. Luther was not brought peace by these acts as many other monks in his order were, but was instead tortured by the monastic life. Luther said I hoped I might find peace of conscience with fasts, prayer, and the vigils with which I miserably afflicted my body, but the more I sweated it out like this, the lest peace and tranquility I knew.1 He took the monastic rituals extremely seriously, leading him to rep eat prayers and other rituals over and over again if he felt he had omitted Luther once commented Along with many others, I myself have experienced how peaceful and quiet Satan is inclined to be during ones early years as a monk.  [3]  Luther was known to spend many nights in terror over spiritual matters, which further burdened his already stressful life. Although the life and rituals of a monk brought Luther no comfort, he was diligent in his performance of his duties. Luther said If anyone could have gained heaven as a monk, then I would indeed have been among them.5 An important occurrence in Luthers journey as a monk took place on Cantate Sunday in 1507. Martin Luther had the opportunity to perform his first mass. In attendance were his Father, Hans, and several of his spiritual mentors. He was worried about his ability to celebrate the mass perfectly. Luther said of the preface to the mass (where Luther addresses God the Father through the Son); At these words I was utterly stupefied and terror-struck. I thought to myself, With what tongue shall I address such Majesty. . .Who am I that I should lift up my eyes . . ? At his nod the earth trembles. . . And shall I, a miserable pygmy, say I want this, I ask for that? For I am dust and ashes and I am speaking to the living, eternal and true God! Luther was in terror as he stood unworthy before the one true God. This event had profound effects on Luther and his celebration of the mass. Luther seemed throughout his career as a monk to be constantly preoccupied with his unworthiness. This is one of t he many issues that haunted Luthers nights during his time at the monastery. After the mass, Luthers father rebuked him and reminded him of his disapproval by reciting the fourth commandment. Luthers first mass was a traumatic experience in his life. Another issue that haunted Luther was the practice of confession. Luther spent much of his time as a monk confessing his sins. Much the same as prayers and canonical hours, Luther was haunted with the thought of imperfect performance of confession. Luther confessed his sins over and over again to his superior and confessor, Johann Staupitz, who would come to have a great influence on Luthers faith walk. Staupitz eventually became frustrated with Luthers confessing and reconfessing and told him You want to be without sin, but you dont have any real sins anyway. Christ is the forgiveness of awful sins, like the murder of ones parents, public vices, blasphemy, adultery and the like. These are real sinsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ you must not inflate your halting, artificial sins out of proportion! Luther was reported to have spent more than one occasion in six hour plus confession sessions with Staupitz. Staupitz and Luther had many discussions over the course of Luthers confessing that helped shap e the faith of the young monk. They discussed grace and salvation through the blood of Christ alone, concepts that would appear strongly in Luthers reformation Staupitz made many attempts to convince Luther to become a doctor and was eventually forced to order Luther under his vow of obedience to become a doctor. After Luther received his doctorate in October of 1512, he engaged in deep biblical study in preparation for his lectures. He spent much of his time writing letters regarding theological matters. During this time his theology began to develop concerning the righteousness of God. Previously he had been frustrated with this concept, saying I felt, with the most disturbed conscience imaginable, that I was a sinner before God. I did not love, indeed I hated the righteous God who punishes sinners and secretly (if not blasphemously and certainly with great grumbling) I was angry with God, and said As if needed it is not enough that miserable sinners, eternally lost through eternal sin, are crushed by every kind of calamity by the law of the ten commandments, without having God add pain to pain by the gospel and also by the gospels threat ening us with his righteousness and wrath! Luthers concept of the righteousness of God shifted from righteousness being something that is achieved by humans to it being a gift bestowed upon mankind by God. This was a critical transformation in Luthers thinking that led to many other changes. Luther became increasingly unhappy with the practices of the church, particularly the practice of indulgences. Luthers frustration with indulgences led to the posting of the ninety five theses on the door of the church in Wittenberg. Thus began the protestant reformation. Throughout the Reformation, Luther put out many documents regarding many areas of the life of a Christian. Many of these documents addressed the monastic life that Luther struggled so much with in his younger years. Monastic vows were addressed in many of Luthers important documents including To The Christian Nobility, and On The Freedom of A Christian. Luther even condemned the monastic lifestyle as a blasphemous humanly invented service in the Smalcald articles, one of the items in the book of Concord. Luthers strongest condemnation against monasticism came in his 1521 document The Judgment of Martin Luther on Monastic Vows. This document was brought about by argument over the issue of clerical celibacy taking place at churches in Magdeburg, Meissen, and Wittenberg. Luther wrote Theses on Vows addressing this subject. He was urged to write The Judgment of Martin Luther on Monastic Vows. when it came to his attention that many monks were leaving of considering leaving their monaster ies. This book would serve as a guide or manual for a monk had left or was considering leaving. The concept of counsels is essential to understand when approaching this work of Luther. Luther shows that the teachings of the New Testament are split up into precepts and counsels. Precepts are the teachings that God has commanded us to follow. Counsels are teachings that may be beneficial to the life of a believer, but are not commanded. One of the problems with the situation regarding monastic vows is that supporters of vows see the commands of Christ as counsels rather than precepts. Luther holds the view that Christs teachings are precepts and following anything contrary to or even beyond the teachings of Christ is sin. This argument is of great importance to the issue of monastic vows. The first section of the book is entitled Vows do not rest on the Word of God, they run counter to the Word of God. Luther starts out his document by presenting monastic vows as a danger. The fact that monastic vows are not commanded in the Bible was Luthers first major issues with the practice. Luther says that the father of monks, St. Anthony did not intend for Christians to pursue a monastic lifestyle, the lifestyle was what he felt led to live. Only after St. Anthonys life did the monastic lifestyle become a vow. Luther also speaks to the authority of Paul in this first section of the work. He says that Paul had unique authority compared to most church fathers because his authority came directly from Christ. After making those two points, Luther says Let this principle be laid down: Whatever is commanded which is contrary to or beyond Christ is condemned. He goes on to say that this principle exists even if it is in an attempt to follow the saints of church fathers. Although Luth er does not believe in the divine authority of the saints or church fathers, he uses the saints in his work which would certainly appeal to a monk debating whether or not to leave the monastery. Luther clarifies the purpose of the gospel as he moves through this section. He feels as if part of the idea behind monastic vows comes from a flawed view of the gospel. The gospel is simply the promises of God declaring the benefits offered to man, according to Luther. The gospel, which frees us from death, sin and the power of the devil, should not lead one into a monastic life. This section also states that everything taught by Christ is necessary to be obeyed. The teachings of Christ are clearly laid out for us as necessary when he refers to them as commandments. Since the teachings of Christ are commandments, Luther says that choosing to follow something else such as monastic vows is Godlessness, blasphemy, sacrilege. Luther is extremely clear that virginity is never commanded in the bible. Moreover, it is not a counsel, biblically is not recommended for our benefit. Luther rebukes the church presenting virginity as something needed for salvation. Luther also says that monastic vows are improper because they cause monks to forsake their Christian duty, a concept very important to Luther. The first section of The Judgment of Martin Luther on Monastic Vows uses scripture and logic to show that monastic vows are not mandated or suggested in scripture, and in some cases can run contrary to scripture. The next section of the work is titled Vows Against Faith. Luther goes to lengths in this section to show that monastic vows are sins. Luther claims that those who take monastic vows are not placing their faith in Christ but in other things. Luther puts it well when he says They assess all the things of God by the limitations of their own human judgment, and found their faith not on the rock of faith but on the sands and swamps of their own unbelief. The belief in vows and therefore works is unnecessary in light of salvation through the blood of Christ. This concept goes to show the impact that Luthers time at the monastery had in his theology. The long nights he spent contemplating salvation and the long discussions he had with Staupitz through the confessional wall concerning grace were making their appearance in his theology. Luther cites scripture throughout this work, leaning especially on Romans on the topic of justification. Over the course of his work during the reformation, Luther was relentless in his defense of the gospel, especially when any party threatened salvation by faith alone. When Tetzel was at the height of his popularity, Luther was quickly on the defense, writing and speaking passionately against the sale of indulgences. This was also the case with monastic vows. Luther spent page after page giving passage after passage explaining that salvation was a gift of God, not achievable by works. To assist in making his point against monastic vows, he brings up that the apostle Paul said Everything that is not of faith is sin. Luther is very clear that monastic vows violate faith. The next section in The judgement of Martin Luther on Monastic Vows is entitled Vows Are Against Evangelical Freedom Luther takes time to define Christian Liberty, which he did in an in depth manner approximately one year prior to this work in On the Freedom of a Christian. Part of the freedom given to us by Gods gift of salvation, according to Luther, is that we do not have to place out trust in works. Monastic vows represent a direct violation of this concept in Luthers eyes. Luther An important part of The Judgment of Martin Luther on Monastic Vows comes when Luther speaks of the two ways to carry out works of the law. According to Luther, there are times when works of the law are carried out by our own will and effort. Works of the law are often done by the work of Christ in the life of a Christian. Luther says that vows can work in much the same way. It is possible for Christ to work in the life of a Christian leading him or her to make a vow in the spirit of freedom. In the case of Monastic vows however, Christ is not leading towards a vow. Christ cannot be behind a monastic vow because monastic vows attempt to further bind monks to the law (which as Luther stated earlier is not the law of God, but includes extra regulations added by humans). All Christians should have the freedom of the gospel, not the bondage of the law. Luther says that a vow complying with evangelical freedom would include a way to relinquish the vow. This is sometimes necessary accordin g to Luther who says If love should demand that the vow be broken and you were to hold fast to your vow you would be sinning. Luther began his document by destroying the authority of monastic vows. When he comes to his fourth section, Vows Are Contrary To The Commandments of God, he has also shown monastic vows as enemies of Christian freedom and of the faith itself. Luther begins the section by taking issue with the denominations of monks; They are no longer called Christians, or children of God, but rather Benedictines, Dominicans, Franciscans, Augustinians. In fulfilling the title of this section, Luther shows monastic vows being in opposition to both the first and second commandments. Monks, by elevating themselves above other members of the body in title and behavior, set themselves as the head of the church rather than Christ. This is a clear violation of the first commandment. Luther also presents monks as having an inflated view of themselves, believing themselves to be more pious, more worshipful, and more holy. Luther sees this as a violation of the second commandment. He says that by their action s and their view of themselves they blaspheme against the name of God. The practice of monastic vows is in contrast to the first table of the Ten Commandments, dealing with humans relations to God. Luther also accuses monastic vows of being in violation of the second table of the Ten Commandments, the table dealing with the reactions between men. The nature of the monastic lifestyle, seclusion and piety is a violation against ones Christian duty to his or her neighbor, or as Luther puts is a violation against love. Luther has now taken his views farther than before, accusing monastic vows and monks themselves of directly violating several of the Ten Commandments. The fifth and final section of Luthers work, Monasticism is Contrary to common sense and reason, showcases his God given abilities. Luther was well versed in logic and rhetoric from his schooling. This final section uses logic as much as scripture to put to rest the issue of monastic vows. Luther takes very basic biblical concepts and uses logic to show how monastic vows are contrary to the concepts. After this logical attack, Luther finishes the work with a Final Assault. Luther takes the ideas expressed over the lengthy work and condenses them into a conclusion. He shows each of the three vows that monks take to be unnecessary, unworthy, and sinful. The indecisive monk reading The Judgment of Martin Luther on Monastic Vows no longer has any questions as to the worthiness of monastic vows. Martin Luther wrote The Judgment of Martin Luther on Monastic Vows to help struggling monks, of which he was one, in their decision to leave their order. Many of the issues that Luther addresses in this work are issues that confronted him during his time at the monastery. Luther was haunted by the need to perform works to gain salvation in his time at the monastery. He was also haunted by the need to perform the practices and rituals necessary of a monk. He addresses both of these issues at length in his document. His time at the monastery makes this piece a very personal work for Martin Luther. Luther underwent a transformation during his time at the monastery that led to his reformation theology. After his theological transformation, he applied his theology to the issue of monastic vows that haunted him for so long. Martin Luther was profoundly affected by monasticism, which showed in the theology of the reformation.

Role of Greed and Grievance in Civil War

Role of Greed and Grievance in Civil War The role that greed and grievance play in civil war is its emergence. Their role is a crucial and controversial one in the creation of civil wars. There have been various arguments concerning their role in its emergence, with most for greed as the key factor as the backbone of all conflict including civil war while a few others also consider grieves role. However, it is my opinion that both work hand in hand to create the violence that is civil war. Some could even see how one begets the other, legitimizing the creation of one through the existence of the other. Either way the role both greed and grieve play is one of an instigator. This paper will illustrates how both factors have intertwining roles in the occurrence of civil war; the aim is to show how one factors role influences the other and how one factors role can overlap and blur the other out. This will be done by looking at various explanations for civil war attributed to greed and grieve individually. To discuss these terms and their role in the emergence of civil war it is crucial to understand what they mean and why they are considered active role players in the creation of civil war. Civil War is conflict that arises when militant groups of people attack a government and or civilians persistently (Collier, 2003:54).What exactly is greed and how does it come into play in the occurrence of civil war? Greed according to the English dictionary (dictionary.com) is ‘excessive or rapacious desire especially for wealth or possessions. It is the need to acquire more than you need taking or having more of what you already have. So who is the greedy in civil war? Based on the definition, do the greedy exist in the sense of the word? If they do, then it is crucial to ‘investigate how the greed generates grievance and rebellion, legitimizing further greed (Keen,2000:32) as part of its role in the occurrence of civil war through, the actions of the greedy. Various economic and political factors contribute to the emergence and creation of civil war starting from inequality in terms of resource allocation to participation in the decision making process. There have been various arguments as to what really causes civil war; the prominent answer is economic inequality. The general idea is that people want more access to resources and because they cannot get it, they take it by force. In this sense, then yes the greedy exist and play a major role in the occurrence of civil war. On the other hand, those who do not have access to recourses at all and just want to enjoy the benefits and access to it in the first place (not more access) are not greedy but needy. The actual participants(people doing the actual fighting, and protesting) of civil war are not acting according to greed, for greed as earlier defined is wanting more of what you already have. They on the other hand just want access to resources denied of them, denoting previous lack. It is easy to link economic need and lack of resources to greed even more so as the focus is often on how the elite manipulate the situations to create civil unrest and strife, and how they and a few others benefit from it. The error is in considering these groups of people to be the only actors of civil war. The aim here is not to diminish the role of greed, for it plays just as important a role as grieve does as will be later discussed. The aim is to point out that it is important to consider those acting from greed and those from grieve, and the role of grievance in causing civil war before giving all the credit to greeds role as the dominant player in the creation of civil conflict. It is impossible for one factor (grieve or greed) to stir up conflict without the presence of the other factor. The greedy, often times are some entrepreneurs, rebel lords and their gangs, and a few elites (including some governments) that have something to gain from civil unrest are motivated by their greed, their desire to hoard more resources, their access to it, and the benefits gained from said resources (in form of employment, education, wealth etc). Their interest is vested in the continuation of war and so they manipulate the grieve that exists in the society which more often than not is a result of their greed. These are the few Collier talks about when he says, ‘civil war creates economic opportunities for a minority of actors even as they destroy it for the majority (Collier, 2000:91). This brings me to the point that the greedy are few but their impact and influence on the occurrence of civil war is big. Greed plays a minor yet visible role in civil war. The greedy few use the genuine grieve of the majority to advance their own economic agenda. According to Collier (2000), gr ieve is used to recruit actors in civil war. To understand the role of grieve; it is important to define it and consider what constitutes the sentiment. Grieve refers to pain over injustice or unfortunate circumstances as used in the English dictionary ‘grieve is to feel great sorrow, be mentally distressed or oppressed and wronged (Dictionary.com). This attribute is evident when considering factors that contribute to civil war. Looking at the case of Rwanda (Caplan, 2007) where the Tutsi had previously oppressed the Hutus during colonialism. The Hutu ethnic group embarked on an ethnic cleansing mission of the Tutsi ethnic group when they gained political power. This example illustrates how grieve came into play for Rwandas civil war. Ethnic differences, which resulted in oppression of one group by the other, created tension and grieve that erupted into violence. The role of Grieve and greed as creators of civil war is evident in that they are the foundations for each explanatory factor given for the occurrence of civil war. They are the driving forces behind factors contributing to civil war like ethnic differences, manipulative leaders and so forth. For each factor attributed to greed, there is grieve working with it making it possible for greed to be pursued, and for each grieve backed reason for civil war, greed is presently active. Both factors work together, greed creates grieve and it is also possible for greed to emerge from that grieve (Cramer, 2002) without one, the other really does not exist in civil war. Thus far, the contribution and role of greed and grieve as individual factors in the occurrence of civil war in a country has been show, now focus is directed to illustrate how their individual roles intertwine and work hand in hand. This aspect of the essay is going to examine the roles both grieve and greed play in different gr eed or grieve specific explanations offered for the cause of civil war. The most prominent explanation or contributing factor to civil war in literature and media seems to be economic agenda (Collier 2003) (greed explanation) and inequality (grieve explanation) between groups and people in the society as previously noted. The idea behind this is that people engage in conflict in order to advance their own economic agenda, be it access to previously denied resources or to gain more access to said resources. Collier (2000:93-95) uses a number of proxies to explain how greed motivates conflict. For instance, the availability of primary loot-able resources(also discussed in Collier, 2008) in a country creates an avenue for conflict to develop out of greed because of what is to be gained from looting (be it profit from actual sale of good or use of it). Another proxy used was the number of young men without job prospects whose income earning potentials and educational levels are low (Collier, 2000:95). According to this analogy jobless young men with no prospects living in a country with an abundance or somewhat large number of â€Å"primary resources† is a recipe for conflict in said society because of idleness and availability of loot-able resources and of course greed. These young jobless men without prospects do not have jobs or proper paying jobs because they have been denied access to proper and good or any form of education(also a factor that contributes to grieve). They may even have one but cannot get any or good employment because of inequality in the society. A country with large â€Å"commodity exports† obviously has the resources to make things better for these people or at least the means (sale of said commodity resources) to make things better. The availability of young men and primary export commodities shows how greeds role as a generator of civil war works. The explanation also illustrates how grieve (also an instigator of civil war) plays its role i n this dominantly greed backed explanation. Grieve experienced over the unfavorable conditions and employment status or lack thereof of these â€Å"young men† led them to resort to conflict to acquire some of the economic resources not made accessible to them. Colliers argument is that countries with â€Å"large primary resources† are prone to more civil war. The logic of his argument is that ‘resource-rich countries have a higher probability for conflict than resource-poor ones (Soya, 2000:120). Well certainly, there is some credit to this logic because resource poor countries have little or no resources. The difference between these two types of countries is that resource rich countries have resources. The scarcity of said resources within the country where the benefits of such resources are not visible or made equally available to its citizens are bound to experience rebellion from the majority of the population considering how only a minority benefits. The sense of injustice and feeling of unfairness likely to arise from the knowledge that certain resources are available but to only a few elite is enough to bring about grieve. This is also likely to motivate rebels and cause an uprising, and not only the idea that there is excess to acquire and more to be made from black market so let us loot and make our own profits like Collier and Soya would have us believe. The greed proxies (available young men, primary resource and education level) and explanations show greeds role at work, and shows that of grieve in civil war, illustrating how one cannot work without the other. The grievance factors of civil war and some of the grieve backed explanations for civil war like differences and animosity existing between groups in the society, and how they contribute to the emergence of civil war also illustrate the role of greed. The first of many is ‘raw ethnic or religious hatred (Collier, 2000:95). The logic behind this is that people are afraid of what they do not know or understand. Therefore, a society that is deeply separated based on different ethnicities and religious views will experience civil unrest at some point or the other because the society is invested in the differences that exist. Take for instance the Biafra war of Nigeria. The Biafra civil war broke out because of the three major ethnic groups (Hausa, Yoruba, and Igbo) in the country, out of which the Igbo were not represented in government. They no longer were actively included in politics after years of being at the forefront of Nigerian politics, and running the country with the las t president (removed through a coup dà ©tat) being from the Igbo ethnic group (Ralph, 2004). Their lack of representation meant their access to certain resources were limited. The ethnic groups in power based on solidarity-favored members of their own ethnic group, their regions had better systems of education, and employment opportunity was regularly based on whom you knew and what ethnic group you belonged to. They only cared about and helped â€Å"their own people† while members of other ethnic groups were being slaughtered and maltreated. This goes to show how deeply rooted the society was in ethnic identities and differences. So much so, that the Igbo felt oppressed and resentment grew. The situation escalated because of problems surrounding the presence of crude oil in the region of the country occupied by the Igbo. The profits made from the resources found in their regions or â€Å"their lands† was not distributed equally around the regions of the nation and es pecially not in the regions, they were found in. In addition, the Igbo leaders decided to keep the profits to themselves to improve the standard of living of maltreated ethnic group members (Global Security.org). Out of grieve over the extent of inequality in the nation the Igbo felt the need to secede. The Nigeria Biafra war illustration of ethnic identities and differences creating civil strife supports the idea that ‘societies that are highly fractionalized by both ethnicity and religion (Collier, 2000:95) will have more incidence of civil war. Furthermore, the illustration not only shows grieve playing its role as a creator of civil war by supporting the grieve backed explanation for causes of civil, in this case ethnic differences and inequality, it also shows greeds role in the occurrence of the Nigerian Biafra civil war. The Igbo were oppressed, agreed but they did not threaten to secede up until they lost their position of power in government (an Igbo was in the presidential office) and found an excuse (Using the proceeds to help the oppressed) to keep the benefits and profits from the valuable natural resource found in the southeast region of Nigeria, where the Igbo reside to themselves. The presence of such a valuable resource like crude oil turned the Igbo greedy an d their state of oppression created an avenue for that greed to show. They wanted to keep the benefits from crude oil to themselves and break from the country. With the already existing situation of the ruling ethnic groups (Hausa and Yoruba), isolating resources based on ethnicity, and their greed in taking and keeping the benefits of the resources without any of it trickling down to the Igbo added to the existing rage and grieve over inequalities that abound in the society and oppression. More importantly, it legitimized the greed of the Igbo group; if it was all right for the ruling groups to hoard resources, it was all right for them to take their resource and keep it for themselves. The ruling groups out of greed kept resources for themselves, this resulted in the neglected groups (Igbo) grieve. Because of their greed, the ruling ethnic groups (Hausa and Yoruba) desired to keep the resource within their grasps and power so they can benefit more from it. This greed possibly led them to resist the secession of the Igbo group away from the nation. The Igbo on the other hand out of grieve over limited access to resources grew greedy and wanted to break from the country at the discovery of a valuable resource (crude oil) they wanted to keep to for themselves. This just goes to show how greed causes grieve and how both factors work together to manipulate situations in a way that results into violence. Another grieve backed factor for civil war that shows the role of both grieve and greed as creators of civil war is the idea of economic inequality again. This factor shows the perfect relationship between the roles of greed and grieve. The latter stemming from the unavailability of certain things like land for instance which Collier (2000) uses as proxy for inequality to others because the elite of the society have access to it. The greed of some in accumulation of resources for themselves and in the process causing grieve for those who do not have access to or are unable enjoy certain benefits derived from it. Ultimately greed from one side coupled with grieve from another equals civil war or at least leads to some form of conflict and even more so in a country with weak governance. A weak government implies ‘government economic incompetence (Collier, 2000:96) and an inability to control or prevent an outbreak of conflict in case one arises from said incompetence. Where there is an incompetent government, greed and grieve have an avenue to breed and reinforce each other in the creation of civil war. An incompetent government is to some extent responsible for economic inequality. The government is tasked with the duty of making resources available to its citizens equally or at the very least provides social safety nets when and where needed. If the government fails to provide these resources in an equal manner and create an equal atmosphere, inequalities are bound to be more apparent in the society and grieve from such inequalities as explained earlier may erupt into civil war. In addition, having a government that supports greed and is itself greedy and corrupt is another aspect in which a weak governance can and often adds to the incidence of civil war an d reinforce the role of greed and grieve as its creators. Through its greedy activities like accepting bribes from elites to maybe get more electricity in certain parts of the country or a government that fails to maintain public amenities such as the public school system because funds for such maintenance out of greed are diverted into their personal accounts creates grieve. Those that cannot afford private school for their kids or those that cannot afford to bribe them are ultimately denied the use of and access to basic resources. This type of behavior creates the foundation for inequality starting from basic education, which would later reflect in other areas of life like employment and income amongst other things. Government incompetence enhances the role of grieve and greed and creates a breeding ground for them to fester. A government with no desire to end conflict because of how they benefit from it be it through bribes from those that want to keep the situation the way it i s or based on their own interest legitimizes greed which goes on to create grieve which may or may not turn into greed and the cycle continues. Ultimately the role of greed and grieve in civil war is the creation of civil war. Factors that explain why civil wars occur are based on greed or grieve and are generally categorized as grieve based or greed based showing how important their role is in civil war. Without the presence of these factors (Greed and Grieve) civil war does not exist, it does not escalate and it does not continue. They are the fuel to the fire that is civil war. In conclusion, greed and grieve as creators of civil war reinforce each. One does not exist without the other and so to ignore the role of one in causing civil war is to leave the glass half-empty. To understand how various explanations of civil war factors work, it is important to recognize that both grieve and greed work together to effectively create the situation. For without greed, grieve cannot effectively play its role and create civil war, and neither can greed without grieve. Bibliography Amartya Sen. (2008). Violence, Identity, and Poverty. Journal of Peace Research. 45 (1), p Caplan, Gerald. (2007). Rwanda:Walking the Road to Genocide. In: Allan Thompson The media and the Rwanda genocide. London: Pluto Press. p20-40. Collier, Paul. (2008). The Conflict Trap. In: Collier The Bottom Billion: Why the Poorest Countries are Failing and What Can Be Done About It. New York: Oxford University Press. p17-37. Collier, Hoeffler, and Sambanis. (2005). The Collier-Hoeffler Model of Civil War Onset and the Case Study Project Research Design. In: Paul Collier, and Nicholas Smbanis Understandying Civil War. 2nd ed. Washington DC: World Bank. p1-35. Collier, Paul. (2003). What makes a country Prone to Civil War. In: Paul Collier,World Bank Breaking the conflict trap: civil war and development policy. Washington, DC: Oxford university press and World Bank. p53-91. Collier, Paul. (2000). Doing Well out of War: An economic Perspective. In: Mats Berdal and David M. Malone Greed and Grievance: Economic Agendas in Civil Wars. London: Lynne Rienner. p91-112. Cramer, C. (2002). Homo Economicus Goes to War: Methodological Individualism, Rational Choice and the Political Economy of War. World Development. 30 (11), p1845-1860. David Keen. (2008). Greed: Economic Agendas. In: Keen Complex emergencies. Cambridge: Polity Press. p25-50. David Keen. (2008). Combatants and their Grievances. In: Keen Complex emergencies. Cambridge: Polity Press. p50-62. David Keen. (2000). Incentives and Disincentives for Violence. In: Mats Berdal and David M. Malone Greed and Grievance: Economic Agendas in Civil Wars. London: Lynne Rienner. p19-42. Global Security. (nd). Biafra War. Available: http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/biafra.htm. Last accessed 5 January 2010. Indra de Soya. (2000). The Resource Curse: Are Civil Wars Driven by Rapacity or Paucity. In: Mats Berdal and David M. Malone Greed and Grievance: Economic Agendas in Civil Wars. London: Lynne Rienner. p113-136. Jacoby, Tim. (2008). Grievance. In: Jacoby Understanding Conflict and Violence: Theoretical and Interdisciplinary Approaches. London: Routledge. 103-123. Raph Uwechue. (2004). The Revolution of January 1966- Mismanaged and Misunderstood. In: Reflections on the Nigerian Civil War: Facing the Future. Victoria: Trafford. p23-33.

Lord Of The Flies: Can Someone Be Innately Evil Or Innately Good? :: essays research papers

The difference in the way humans perceive things is part of the complexity of mankind. What is thought of as evil to one person can be seen as good to another, and vice versa. The issue of good and evil is brought up in William Golding’s Lord of the Flies, when innocent boys are set on an island to bear the weight of society on their backs. What happens to them? How do past influences effect them? Are their actions good or evil? The actions of the boys were not a matter of being good or evil, but were actions for survival. A man’s environment does not influence him towards good or evil, nor is he born with it inside. Man has instincts and inner drives that are not matters of good and evil, but of survival.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Humans are always, by natural instinct, going to do what is best for them and their survival. Animals, much like men, kill when in need. For instance, when they feel they are backed into a corner, they will attack, and when they need food, they will kill to eat. In Lord of the Flies, Ralph was being hunted by Jack’s tribe, and in a desperate attempt in his defense, he thrust his spear through a crack at the inspecting savages. Ralph attacked someone of his own kind for his own survival. It can be believed that man is the derivative of others animals, and as such, they have certain instincts that were instilled from birth. The boys on the island later began to resemble the behavior of animals. â€Å"At once the crowd surged after it, poured down the rock, leapt on to the beast, screamed, struck, bit, tore. There were no words, and no movements but the tearing of teeth and claws† (153). William Golding’s description of this scene leads a reader to believe that these boys took on animal like qualities. What kind of human tears with teeth and claws? The boys mistake Simon for their beast and result in ruthlessly killing him. In their state of mind of savagery and hunting, they saw themselves in danger of this â€Å"beast† and their first instinct was to kill anything in sight that had the possibility of being it. Humans and animals have a natural instinct to protect themselves in the face of danger, like attacking when backed into a corner. Lord Of The Flies: Can Someone Be Innately Evil Or Innately Good? :: essays research papers The difference in the way humans perceive things is part of the complexity of mankind. What is thought of as evil to one person can be seen as good to another, and vice versa. The issue of good and evil is brought up in William Golding’s Lord of the Flies, when innocent boys are set on an island to bear the weight of society on their backs. What happens to them? How do past influences effect them? Are their actions good or evil? The actions of the boys were not a matter of being good or evil, but were actions for survival. A man’s environment does not influence him towards good or evil, nor is he born with it inside. Man has instincts and inner drives that are not matters of good and evil, but of survival.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Humans are always, by natural instinct, going to do what is best for them and their survival. Animals, much like men, kill when in need. For instance, when they feel they are backed into a corner, they will attack, and when they need food, they will kill to eat. In Lord of the Flies, Ralph was being hunted by Jack’s tribe, and in a desperate attempt in his defense, he thrust his spear through a crack at the inspecting savages. Ralph attacked someone of his own kind for his own survival. It can be believed that man is the derivative of others animals, and as such, they have certain instincts that were instilled from birth. The boys on the island later began to resemble the behavior of animals. â€Å"At once the crowd surged after it, poured down the rock, leapt on to the beast, screamed, struck, bit, tore. There were no words, and no movements but the tearing of teeth and claws† (153). William Golding’s description of this scene leads a reader to believe that these boys took on animal like qualities. What kind of human tears with teeth and claws? The boys mistake Simon for their beast and result in ruthlessly killing him. In their state of mind of savagery and hunting, they saw themselves in danger of this â€Å"beast† and their first instinct was to kill anything in sight that had the possibility of being it. Humans and animals have a natural instinct to protect themselves in the face of danger, like attacking when backed into a corner.

Analytical Chemistry :: essays research papers

Analytical Chemistry   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Analytical Chemistry is the branch of chemistry principally concerned with determining the chemical composition of materials, which may be solids, liquids, gases, pure elements, compounds, or complex mixtures. In addition, chemical analysis can characterize materials but determining their molecular structures and measuring such physical properties as pH, color, and solubility. Wet analysis involves the studying of substances that have been submerged in a solution and microanalysis uses substances in very small amounts.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Qualitative chemical analysis is used to detect and identify one or more constituents of a sample. This process involves a wide variety of tests. Ideally, the tests should be simple, direct, and easily performed with available instruments and chemicals. Test results may be an instrument reading, and observation of a physical property, or a chemical reaction. Reactions used in qualitative analysis may attempt to cause a characteristic color, odor, precipitate, or gas appear. Identification of an unknown substance is accomplished when a known one is found with identical properties. If none is found, the uknown substance must be a newly identified chemical. Tests should not use up excessive amounts of a material to be identified. Most chemical methods of qualitative analysis require a very small amount of the sample. Advance instrumental techniques often use less than one millionth of a gram. An example of this is mass spectrometry.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Quantitative chemical analysis is used to determine the amounts of constituents. Most work in analytical chemistry is quantitative. It is also the most difficult. In principle the analysis is simple. One measures the amount of sample. In practice, however, the analysis is often complicated by interferences among sample constituents and chemical separations are necessary to isolate tthe analyte or remove interfering constituents.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The choice of method depends on a number of factors: Speed, Cost, Accuracy, Convenience, Available equipment, Number of samples, Size of sample, Nature of sample, and Expected concentration. Because these factors are interrelated any final choice of analytical method involves compromises and it is impossible to specify a single best method to carry out a given analysis in all laboratories under all conditions. Since analyses are carried out under small amounts one must be careful when dealing with heterogeneous materials. Carefullly designed sampling techniques must be used to obtan representative samples.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Preparing solid samples for analysis usually involves grinding to reduce particle size and ensure homogeneity and drying. Solid samples are weighed using an accurate analytical balance. Liquid or gaseous samples are measureed by volume using accurately calibrated glassware or flowmeters. Many, but not all, analyses are carried out on solutions of the sample. Solid samples that are insoluble in water must be treated chemically to dissolve them without any

Symantec – network security software company

Symantec, one of the world’s leading network security software company is facing many managerial obstacles In today’s global market place, where customer expectation and continuously emerging global competitors have drastically shorted the product lifecycle. Symantec is facing over 20,000 virus samples each month, not all of which are unique, stand-alone viruses. On top of that, dealing with this critical and time sensitive challenges, requires exceptional talented employee’s that is Symantec’s divers response team spread out in outsourced groups all over the world.Managers for a company such as Symantec needs to keep the professionals excited about work, even though it is a routine, standardized and chaotic environment they work within. To manage this, they need to use their technical, human and conceptual skills. Conceptual skill is the availability to visualize the organization as a whole. Symantec is spread out throughout the whole world, so the manage rs need to keep track of different time zones so that they have people working 24/7 in case unpredictable viruses would show up.Symantec, as said before, is one of the world’s leading network security company and it is hard for the managers to motivate each employee, and make them feel special. That is where the human relation skills is necessary from the managers within the company. Since new viruses are popping up randomly without preparation, the managers should let the professional employee’s try to work as self-independent as possible, so that they don’t have any guide lines to keep track of since all virus cases are different.In addition, the managers need technical skills. They need to be educated with the equipment that is being used within the company, so when distractions or problems show up, they are prepared and experienced with it, and can deal with it fast so not valuable time goes to waste. The operation manager Patrick Fitzgerald needs to play di fferent kind of management roles in different kind of cases. When Mr. Fitzgerald has weekly security briefing conference calls with coworkers around the globe, he needs to play a so called Liaison Role.This means that he will be a manager that serves as a connecting link between his coworkers and take in information he gets from coworkers on other location throughout the world. When he is assessed the feasibility of adding a new network security consulting service, He needs to be informed by the different possible outcomes, he needs to be prepared for what can go wrong. He needs to have information and be sure that it the intended effect of the new investment is profitable and not something wasteful. A management role such as leader is necessary when he needs to keep his employees focused on the company’s’ commitments to customer.The leader is responsible for deligating tasks and making sure that each task is done properly and reported to the next person in the chain o f management. The information of the Company Symantec we can find on their website, about its emphasis on customer service and innovation is that they are very determined to provide high security for the customers and their computers. They empower their employees by educating them so they can take more decisions on their own without having to go to a higher instance.Conclusion Symantec is a global leader in providing security, storage and systems management solutions to help the customers. It is a global company with employees outsourced all over the world which makes the manager’s work even harder. In addition to that, it is a chaotic business with issues and problems popping up such as viruses without be able to prepare for it. Their main focus is to empower their professional employees to think on their own and work independent without take the issue to higher instances.

Health Science

Ministry of Higher Education Oman Medical College Health Science Program By: Marwa Rashid Al-Flaiti Objectives: To fined the rate of fermentation of the apple and carrot juices, and compare their rates to each other. Introduction: Procedure: A 5. 00 ml of apple juice was taken in a clean 150 ml conical flask and diluted with 50 ml of distal water. Then, 2. 00 grams of Baker's yeast and 5. 00 ml of solution of Pasteur's salts were added to the above conical flask.The content of flask was shacked well and maintained the temperature of the reaction mixture between 35-40 ? c by using hot water path. After that, 10 drops of the reaction mixture from the flask were taken after 10 minutes and added to a test tube which contained 1. 00 ml of Benedict's reagent. The test tube was placed in hot water for about 2. 00 minutes and changes in color were noticed. The last step was repeated every 10. 00 minutes for 6 times.The same procedure was used for carrot solution and rate of fermentation for both solutions were found. Observation: * Volume of fruit juice taken = 5. 00 ml * Volume of dist. Water added = 50. 0 ml * Weight of Baker's yeast added = 2. 00 gm * Volume of solution of Pasteur's salts = 5. 00 ml Time (Min)| Color of reaction mixture on reaction with Benedict's solution in case of 😠 | Apple| Carrot| 10| Blue| Dark Blue| 20| Green| Green| 30| Green| Green| 40| Green| Green| 50| Green| Green| 60| Green| Dark Blue|